The writing of abstracts

Academic abstracts: Varied parameters according to the research field

The American Psychological Association (APA, 2010) determines that an “[a]bstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article; it allows readers to survey the contents of an article quickly (…)” (p.25).  Audiences should be attracted to go on reading the rest of the study from a limited number of words which form part of this important section. For that reason APA (2008) advices writers on being accurate, concise, and coherent as well as non-evaluative when documenting information.  An abstract then may be a fundamental section in a research article, being required by the majority of scholarly journals for the submission of papers.  Despite this, it should be clarified that the abstract as well as the rest of the article is likely to adjust to the specifications of the journal and the field of research pursued.  Either in the social sciences as well as the hard sciences, writers may undergo a complex process when preparing this piece since as Swales (1990) maintains an abstract is “a rite de passage” for entering the academic community (as cited in Orasan, n.d).  This present work is intended to analyze and compare four abstracts developed in the field of medicine and education.

Wijeysundera, Beattie, Fraser, Austin, Hux and Laupacis (2010) have produced an in-depth abstract for a medicine research paper which exceeds the usual wording (more than 150 words).  It presents heading division, following no particular format.  As for the introduction the objective seems to be clearly stated: To correlate variables in the study.  This part is followed by the obtained results which sustain the hypotheses made and the conclusion part which correlates non-invasive cardiac stress testing with life promising prospects. Yet the method section is not labeled after that name but “interventions” is the name provided (Wijeysundera, Beattie, Fraser, Austin, Hux & Laupacis, 2010). It states the steps that would appear in the body of the paper.  It is a “brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article” (APA, 2010, p. 25) that resembles a report on an empirical study (APA, 2010, p. 26).  However, results or findings are comprehensibly presented in short concise sentences, but there is not method section explained.  There is use of complete sentences with predominance of past passive and past verbs; they are clear as regards the summary of ideas made still there is abundant use of terminology which hinders understanding of some concepts.  The axiom of conciseness is kept: “be brief, and make each sentence maximally informative” (APA, 2010, p.26).

In line with the above example, The New England Journal of  Medicine (2008) presents a research paper whose abstract section seems to be intended to transmit information about the positive effects of antihypertensive treatment in patients 80 years of age or older.  It is possible to state that this section is developed on a separate sheet of paper as well as being situated between the title and the first page of the research work. According to APA (2008), the number of words for an abstract should not exceed 200 words. However, this abstract section does not comply with APA specifications for surpassing the number required. In addition, the Introduction-Method- Result-And-Discussion (IMRAD) formula appears to be replaced by background, methods, results and conclusion parts. Although the abstract must have been written akin to the authors’ notions, it should be noticed that the piece appears to be directed to an audience with understanding on the topic. As Swales and Feak (1994) clearly express "research abstracts are more important for the reader than for the writer" (p. 210). Regarding linguistic features, the present abstract includes full sentences in the past, the use of impersonal passives and the absence of negatives (Swales & Feak, 1994; Swales, 1990).  Nevertheless, the results part is full of abbreviations and jargon which make difficult its comprehension for a non-doctor community.

Writing abstracts within the Social Sciences does possible entail fewer standards to meet. King (2002) has produced an abstract whose parts may be covertly stated. According to its usage, this abstract is more specifically written in the field of teaching foreign languages.  As set out by Lancaster (1991), this may be an informative summary of the paper to be dealt with further on (cited in Orasan, n.d). There is background information as regards the rise of films as pedagogical resources for classroom use. This abstract could be in line with theoretical studies as well. Therefore, it is not designed after the Introduction-Method- Result-And-Discussion (IMRAD) model with no subheadings used. Yet, the use of phrases and connectors such as “this paper starts (…)” and “finally” clarify the research questions.  These, in turn, are related to the implementation of “film viewing approaches” and the criteria reached after deep analysis in order to favor motivation in classroom environments (King, 2002).  The online writing laboratory (OWL, 2010) claims that an abstract to be good “is intelligible to a wide audience” (Writing report abstracts). This abstract would fit that axiom since language is clear and concise to involve a teaching community in general.  Making the most of DVDs can apply to a science teacher in the same way as a foreign language one. Moreover, it does not contain results, conclusions or recommendations. Still, it presents the scope of the study, in this case, to evaluate the benefits of film viewing in the classroom (King, 2002).

 Likewise, Rammal (2006), whose research article is aimed at encouraging teachers of English to use video materials in the foreign language classroom, develops an abstract comprised in the Humanities. There seems to be no structured format since the summary is attained through a two-sentence paragraph. There is an opening statement that introduces the topic of the RA. However, there is no reference to methods, results as well as conclusions in the abstract. Moreover, there is no use of past tenses, which characterizes this part. There are several writers who discuss that among the parts of an abstract, the problem which gives rise to the research work is bound to be delimited. In this case, Rammal (2006) has not highlighted sections but signals the focus of the project and the main concern under investigation through the opening line: The design of audio-visual material for EFL. Although the approach or method is not expressed either, Rammal (2006) by means of the transition word “however” has narrowed the topic. Consequently, it is probable to refer to this summary as an indicative one where the writer “provides a brief description to help the reader understand the general nature and scope of the original document without going into a detailed step by step account of what the source text is about” (Lancaster, 1991; as cited in Orasan, n.d).

After analyzing and comparing the four abstracts which introduce diverse topics in different research articles within the fields of medicine and education, it has been possible to reach the following conclusions. The four abstracts seem to clearly state the purpose of these studies, although they do not clearly cope with the IMRAD formula. However, the information presented at the very beginning of each document appears to successfully attract the reader’s attention for being concise, specific and objective. In addition, linguistics features may be well-produced when expressing the main purpose of this section. Significantly enough is the fact that the abstracts in the medicine field tend to be directed to professionals who belong to that community and who may share common knowledge so that comprehension is reached. Another similarity is the exceeding number of words in these summaries. Somewhat different are the abstracts comprised in education. Namely, the number of words is fewer and subheadings are not employed. There seems to be distinctive parameters in both cases which may be aimed at common understanding for the reader with no attention to formula in structure or layout. Altogether, as stated by several scholars, an abstract entails a rather complex task, one which may vary according to the research field as well as the Journal’s requirements.

References

American Psychological Association. (2008). Publication Manual (5^th ed.). Washington, DC: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication Manual (6^th ed.). Washington, DC: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.

Becket, N. S., Peters, R., Fletcher, A. E., Staessen, J. A., Liu, L., Dumitrascu, D., et al. (2008). Treatment of hypertension in patients 80 years of age or older. The New England Journal of Medinice. Retrieved June 2011, from http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa0801369

King, J. (2002). Using dvd feature films in the efl classroom. The weekly column, 88. Retrieved June 2011, from http://www.eltnewsletter.com/back/February2002/art882002.htm

Online Writing Laboratory. (2010). Report abstracts. Retrieved May 2011, from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/656/01/

Orasan, C. (n.d). Patterns in Scientific Abstracts. University of Wolverhampton.  Retrieved May 2011, from http://www.wlv.ac.uk/~in6093

Rammal, S. M. (2006). Video in efl classroom. Retrieved June 2011, from http://www.usingenglish.com/articles/video-in-efl-classrooms.html

Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. (Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. Ann Harbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Wijeysundera, D. N., Beattie, W. S., Elliot, R. F., Austin, P. C., Hux, J. E., & Laupacis, A. (2010). Non-invasive cardiac stress testing before elective major non-cardiac surgery: Population based cohort study. British Medical Journal, 340, b5526. doi: 10.1136/bmj.b5526

The Dos and Don'ts of the Academia

Dealing with academic conventions during the process of writing

Taking into account that academic research articles are intended to report on results so as to produce new knowledge and theories as well as solving problems (Sampieri, Collado & Lucio, 1998), it is necessary to bear in mind that a specific framework should be carried out when dealing with these kinds of investigations.  According to the established academic standards, several parts should be present when composing research papers.  In addition, writing research reports (RP) in the educational field implies understanding the dos and don’ts of the academia.  All along this paper, a document in the field of science education will be analyzed considering the American Psychological Association (APA, 2007) academic conventions for communicating important findings.

Villoria’s (1998) RP seems to be an expository document which has been written to explain the social research methodology with reference to “the researcher’s job” (para. 1).  Considering types of research papers, the author has made use of an argumentative model in order to support her claims by means of the necessary evidence (Copley, Greenberg, Handley & Oaks, 1996). It should be noticed that Villoria’s (1998) paper lacks of an abstract section and other parts which are commonly found in any research article (RA).  For that reason, the document seems to correspond to a research paper (RP) genre for transmitting advances in the field of educational investigations.  According to Teiltelbaum (1975), RA differs from term papers due to critical thinking, evaluation and analysis of the different sources which are intended to provide an answer to the research question as well as relevant evidence to support the thesis statement.

Conversely to analytical papers, Villoria’s (1998) argumentative document develops through a problem-solution (P-S) structure which is thought to be more suitable for argumentative and evaluative texts. The author has made use of a situation, problem, solution and evaluation sequence for enhancing the audience’s reflection about the researcher’s role as well as the process of selection among others. By situating the reader within a context and then describing the problem regarding the social science researcher’s job, Villoria (1998) appears to be able to provide possible solutions based on substantial sources.  The author refers to previous works all along the development of her document, so as to support her arguments by means of reliable evidence.  

Although APA (2008) advises not to use footnotes “because they are often expensive for publishers to reproduce” (p. 202), Villoria (1998) has benefited from this resource. It seems as she has allowed the audience to identify sources and clarify concepts which have been mentioned in the text above.  In addition, the writer has reinforced her claims by evaluating the problem and, at the same time, providing a solution through critical assessment.  By suggesting the reader that “el investigador debe asumirse como un artesano activo porque va a construir algo y para ello va a tomar innumerable decisiones” (Villoria, 1998, para. 17), the writer is expressing her personal opinion through evaluative comments in the last part of her work.

By analyzing Villoria’s (1998) article as well as identifying the academic procedure for dealing with the different RP sections, it has been possible to reach the following conclusions.  The author seems to have presented her study in a well-balanced and comprehensible fashion taking into account the dos and don’ts of the academia.  She has been capable of engaging the audience through a process of reflection by applying APA conventions for either the transmission of information or outcome reports.  Although writers are free to choose between presenting isolated or blend sections, Villoria (1998) seems to have considered linguistics characteristics as well as layout and format following a problem-solution structure for discussing relevant features.  Consequently, it is possible to affirm that in order to produce academic pieces of writings, such as the previous research report, the writer has been able to apply specific requirements for coping with the academic demands.

References

American Psychological Association (2007). Concise rules of APA style. Washington, DC: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.

American Psychological Association (2008). Publication Manual (5^th ed.). Washington, DC: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.

Copley, C., Greenberg, L., Handley, E., & Oaks, S. (1996). The writer’s complex. Empire State College. Retrieved May 2011, from http://www.esc.edu/esconline/across_esc/writerscomplex.nsf/home

Hernández Sampieri, R., Fernández Collado, C., & Baptista Lucio, P. (1998). Metodología de la investigación. 2nd. Ed. McGraw Hill. México.

Lindón Villoria, A. (1998). De la investigación en ciencias sociales, de las “tesis” y la metodología de la investigación. El Colegio Mexiquense, A. C. 17, 1-7. Retrieved May 2011, from http:// www.cmq.edu.mx/component/docman/doc.../141-di0150111.html

 Teitelbaum, H. (1975). How to write theses: A guide to research paper. Monarch Press: New York, N.Y.

Academic styles in research articles

Identifying academic conventions in the fields of medicine and education

Sampiere, Collado and Lucio (1998) explain that after the research work finishes and results are ordered, organized and evaluated, findings need to be communicated through a report which will take different forms which may vary from books to audiovisual material like DVDs. “It is then important to define the type of report to be adopted which will rely on (a) the reasons why the research work emerged, (b) the audience the research is directed to, and (c) the context where it will be introduced” (Sampiere, Collado & Lucio, 1998, p. 502).  A medical article and an educational research work have been drawn from scientific journals in different academic fields. Both studies bear distinctive characteristics as regards citation styles and handling of results findings albeit resemblances in report division.

The research article (RA) in the field of medicine is concerned with the benefits of living in farming environments by being exposed to a great variety of microorganisms which have proved to protect children from asthma. While the educational article is a descriptive study about the children's perception of their schools as related to their long-term development. Taking into account the results, discussions and conclusions sections in RAs, these two studies have developed their work through different structures. According to Swales (1990), the diverse parts of a research document may be presented in isolation or integrated together, as in the case of the results and discussions sections. For some authors the former may stand separated from the latter, while for other writers the results section needs to be blended with the discussions one depending on the kind of research.

Considering that the result section introduces the main findings of the research (Swales, 1990), it is possible to recognize the outcomes in both works by analyzing the information that the authors have presented by means of academic conventions. Not only has data information been developed along the text format, but also through tables and figures, since this kind of resources provides the authors with the possibility of presenting a great amount of gathered information in a small space (American Psychological Association, 2007).  In the medical study, the researcher makes reference to the numbered figures and tables that appear on separate pages of the paper, while the tables in the educational field stand between paragraphs. Additionally, both research articles make use of past tenses for the collected data explanation, so as to clearly inform the audience about their findings.

It should be noticed that DeMarie (2010) has included tables in order to supplement information. Still, the author has centered but not italicized headings. Yet, general notes “[which] refer to some aspect of the entire table” and specific notes are used to clarify meaning of “a particular column or row” (APA, 2007, p. 82).  The medicine article also misses to italicize table headings neither it locates them flush right but centered. As far as figures are referred to, both convey with APA requirements in reference to titles in lower and uppercase form as well as figure and number italicized. Especially noteworthy is the use of graphs to establish comparison of variables between the children on farms: Control group and the children on rural areas: Reference group (Ege, Mayer, Normand, Genuneit, Cookson, Phil, Fahrlander, Heederik, Piarroux & Mutius, 2011).

Regarding format, not only the discussion but also the conclusion sections are hold together in Ege et al. (2011) where the authors analyze the outcomes in the light of their findings. Similarly to the educational article, the study in the field of medicine has covered the analysis of data gathered in the results section. Furthermore, these studies seem to answer the hypotheses made (Sampiere, Fernandez-Collado & Lucio, 1998).  DeMarie (2010) outlines the findings as presented in the research questions. Ege et al. (2011) employ the same mechanism in order to discard the notion that microbial exposure on farms is related to childhood asthma. However, the latter has made use of an unnecessary expression for signaling the concluding paragraph which is not commonly employed in serious academic writing (APA, 2007).

DeMarie (2010) incorporates a discussion section, further enhanced by a recommendation section and a concluding paragraph. Except for the fact that these three are written in isolation, it would be in accordance with Sampiere, Collado and Lucio’s proposal (2008). However, the author appears to have chosen a clear-cut division so that the audience is able to trace the line of thought pursued. The discussion part clearly states the key issues found in the study as well as a comparative analysis of the groups analyzed. It can be noticed the use of process-paragraphs and past tenses.  Further still, the author recommends applying auto-photography, interviews and picture selection as methods of information gathering so that the researcher may get a fairly complete picture of what a school is like through children’s eyes (DeMarie, 2010).  A conclusion is then reached, and the author appears to acknowledge some enlightening results on the understanding children might have of their schools from a “bottom-up perspective” (Katz, 1993; as cited in DeMarie, 2010, Conclusion section, para. 1).

Using an author-date citation style, authors should list all works cited in the text alphabetically at the end of the article. Bearing in mind APA (2010) recommendations for reference list citations, rules for documenting sources must not be ignored, such as autho(s), date of publication, title of the source, place of publication, publisher and any other relevant data. However, the educational study uses a modified editorial style based on the fourth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, since it differs from the APA style principally in the use of authors' names as they appear in the cited articles rather than the use of only first initials. By the same token, the medical article does not cope with APA style requirements for dealing with reference lists, since authors entries have not been order alphabetically, but numerically regarding the order in which each source has been cited in the body of the paper. It can be noticed, yet, that reference entries are double-spaced, and authors are named if the number does not exceed six. Otherwise, the three first are named followed by et al.

Although writers are free to choose between presenting isolated and blend results, discussions as well as conclusions sections due to their own purposes, it is important to accept that linguistic characteristics for research articles presentations should be considered as necessary features regarding academic conventions. For that reason, it could be possible to believe that researchers should be capable of performing academic writing skills when dealing with research studies. Identifying a problem, summarizing data, stating and evaluating solutions as well as enhancing the reader’s reflection through convincing arguments seem to be valuable processes for coping with research documentations. All in all, the outlined sections should provide the reader with explanations, assumptions, interpretations, assessment as well as possible alternatives by means of an appropriate use of academic features and patterns for researching investigations.

References

American Psychological Association (2007). Concise rules of APA style. Washington, DC: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication Manual (6^th ed.). Washington, DC. 

Edge, M., Mayer, M., Normand, A.C., Genuneit, J., Cookson, W., Phil, D., & Mutius, E.V. (2011). Exposure to environmental microorganisms and childhood asthma. The New England Journal of Medicine, 364 (8), 701-709. Retrieved May 2011, from http:// www.nejm.com.org

DeMarie, D. (2001). Successful versus unsuccessful schools through the eyes of children: the use of interviews, autophotography, and picture. Early Childhood Research and Practice, 12 (2). Retrieved May 2011, from http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v12n2/demarie.html

Hernández Sampieri, R., Fernández-Collado, C., & Lucio, B.P. (2008). Metodología de la Investigación (4th ed.). México: McGraw-Hill.

Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. (Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Academic writing in the fields of medicine and education

Analyzing academic conventions in the fields of medicine and education

Considering that academic research articles are intended “a) to produce new knowledge and theories, and b) to solve problems” (Sampieri, Collado & Lucio, 1998; as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010a, p. 9), it is necessary to bear in mind that a specific framework should be carried out when dealing with these kinds of investigations.  According to the established academic standards, several parts should be present when composing research papers.  Introduction, literature review and method sections are ones of those parts which have to be carefully developed for the presentation of the academic work.  All along this paper, introductions’ as well as literature reviews’ and method sections’ structures and layouts in the fields of education and medicine will be discussed taking into account the Create a Research Space Model (C.A.R.S.) which provides a set of organizational patterns for dealing with research articles.

Providing that introductions are aimed to attract the readers’ attention, they should be “structured in a general-specific manner, following the C.A.R.S. Model” (Swales and Feak, 1994, as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010b, p. 27).  Besides, introductions are characterized by an organizational pattern known as moves or cycles, which allow the writes to create a research space, establish a niche and occupy the gap found in the previous stage (Swales and Feak, 1994; as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010b).  In the analysis of an article in the field of medicine which was based on a longitudinal observation study of the dietary habits of American population and the use of web-based programs to prevent serious illnesses, the introduction clearly states the subject matter of the research work. Moore has introduced the topic in move 1 as well as creating the need to run the research when he states that,

The dietary habits of Americans are creating serious health concerns. The “obesity epidemic” is the most publicized evidence of the problem, but it is only one aspect. Studies have suggested that better dietary habits can, even with only modest weight loss, prevent or help control a number of expensive, chronic conditions like hypertension, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and even some types of cancer. (Moore, 2008, para. 4)

After making reference to the literature review which stands for those studies and approaches that have dealt with dietary habits previously, the author is able to establish the niche when he expresses the reasons for his investigation in the following example “[t]here is some evidence that use of these [web-based] programs can lead to short-term weight loss, but there is little evidence that they are effective” (Moore, 2008, para. 5).  By doing so, the author indicates a gap in the previous studies, which will occupy the niche in move 3 by outlining the purpose for the present work. In the last paragraph of the introduction, which has moved from general to specific structure, not only does the writer outline the aims of the study, but also announces main findings “[we] designed a web-based program, DASH for health, to improve nutrition and physical activity habits” (Moore, 2008, para. 6).

According to Swales and Feak (1994; as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010b), method sections follow a process paragraph principle in order to explain either how to do something or how something has happened in a logical as well as chronological sequence of events (p. 33). Considering the article on medicine, the author has developed the method section by explaining carefully and deeply the different steps that allowed the researcher to fulfill the aims. In this part of the research paper, it is possible to know about the research subjects together with the sample size and selection, the methodology for carrying out the study, the technological tool or web-based program, the procedure as well as the measures and data analysis. All the information has been presented in detail, providing explanations, examples, and even photographs which clearly portray a comprehensible panorama about investigation process.

In addition to the medical research article, a similar analysis has been carried out for an academic research in the field of education. Conversely to the first one, the collaborative learning project to teach information literacy skills to twelfth grade regular English students (Coleman, 1994),  presents the introduction as well as the literature review and method section along the development of different well–defined chapters. In chapter I, it is possible to grasp the project background information, the problem and the outcome objectives in a general-specific structure characterized by the three organizational moves. In order to create a research space, the writer provides background information in Move 1, so as to “[establish] a research territory” (Pintos & Crimi, 2010b, p. 49).  By doing so, the reader becomes situated in the specific scenario where the need for running the study emerges. Furthermore, the use of literature review in Move 1, allows the author to refer not only to what has been found, but also to what previous researchers have done.

Establishing the niche, which engages the audience through raising questions about the state of arts as well as expanding previous knowledge, provides the reasons for the research study (Pintos & Crimi, 2010b).  In chapter 1, along the problem statement section, the researcher is able to introduce move 2 by making use of a negative opening necessary to indicate the gap. Besides, move 2 which starts as “[h]owever, the media specialist did have some concerns with the new applications of the technology available to the students” (Coleman, 1994, p. 5) indicates a link between move 1 and 3. What is more, move 2 provides further reference some pages onwards, due to a benchmark project that enhances the reader to expand his knowledge. As far as move 3 is concerned, the author states what the project research is about by accounting solutions as well as main findings.

Regarding method sections, the educational research article adheres to the principle process paragraph similar to the research study in the field of medicine. By contrast with the medical academic study, the people involved in the investigation in the field of education are identified as participants, and not as subjects. Besides, the procedure, which describes step-by-step the actions performed, is accompanied by a reference to the appendix section. As a consequence, appendixes which “… contain material that is too detailed to be presented in the body of the paper” (American Psychological Association, 2010; as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010b, p. 47) are labeled regarding the information gathered at the end of the research paper.

By analyzing research articles in the field of medicine and education as well as being able to identify the academic procedure for dealing with introductions, literature reviews and method sections, it has been possible to reach the following conclusions. Both works developed from a general to a specific organization following the C.A.R.S. model principles. The medical study introduction was clearly presented in a short and comprehensible manner, while the educational introduction was longer than the previous one, but easily understood by the reader. Not only did the research paper in the field of medicine but also the one in the teaching field make use of specific literature review so as to establish the research territory. Finally, the method sections, which responded to the principles of process paragraph, made reference to the research participants, materials and procedures. Consequently, it is possible to affirm that in order to produce academic pieces of writings, such as the previous research articles, writers should be able to apply specific requirements for coping with the academic demands.

References

Coleman, M. W. (1994). Using a collaborative learning project to teach information literacy skills to twelfh grade regular English students. Retrieved April 2011, from ERIC database (ED371389).

Moore, T. J. (2008). Weight, blood pressure, and dietary benefits after 12 months of a web-based nutrition education program (DASH for health): Longitudinal observational study. Journal of medical internet research. Retrieved April 2011, from

http:// http://www.jmir.org/2008/4/e52/

Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 1: Defining concepts in research. Universidad CAECE, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved April 2011, from

http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=9459

Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 2: The research article: Introduction, literature review and method sections. Universidad CAECE, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved April 2011, from

http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=9070

Educational Terminology

Professionalism in discourse communities

Since a discourse community is a knowledge community where its members share certain values, aims and expectations, it is possible to suggest that these people are hold together through the use of socially constructed language practices (Bizzel, 1986, 1992; Candlin, 1997; Gunnarson, 1997; Herzberg, 1986; Ivanic, 1998; Reid, 1993; Swales, 1990; cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010). On top of that, characteristics, which are based on Swales’ (1990) core criteria for this knowledge organization, could be identified in the field of education. According to Swales’ (1990) requirements, this kind of community should present patterns of common goals, participatory mechanisms, information exchanges, community-specific genres, highly specialized terminology and high level of expertise (cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010).

Both experts and apprentices, who make use of particular systems of speech and writing as well as accomplishing Swales’ (1990) basic criteria requirements, could be part of an academic community. Regarding the author’s (1990) notion of discourse community and his principles for testing and checking people’s membership, varied examples have been found in teaching learning as praxis “describing how a group makes use of discourse to organize different activities” (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.13). As an example, situated learning discourse community for teacher reflection provides insights on how teachers and colleagues interact and exchange ideas in goal-directed communicative activities (cited in Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles & Lopez-Torres, 2003).

Belonging to any disciplinary knowledge organization implies not only the use of specific lexicon, practices, beliefs or goals, but also professionalism, which encompasses certain qualities required to perform demanding tasks in a society. Banfi (1997) describes professionals as those individuals who make use of their intellectual skills which have been acquired after a period of specialized learning in order to be able to provide a social service (cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010). In addition, McLaughlin and Talbert (1993) assert that “teachers need opportunities to participate in professional communities that discuss learning theories and various teacher materials and pedagogy” (as cited in Wenzlaff & Wieseman, 2004, para.5). As a consequence, it is possible to believe that teachers should promote and achieve professionalism, so as to extend knowledge in order to better perform in discourse organizations in the field of education.

References

Hoffman-Kipp, P., Artiles, A. J., & Lopez-Torres, L. (2003). Beyond reflection: teacher learning as praxis. Theory into Practice, Summer, 2003. Retrieved Octover 2010, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NQM/is_3_42/ai_108442653

Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Universidad CAECE, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved October 2010, from

http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=6856

Wenzlaff, T. L., & Wieseman, K. C. (2004). Teachers need teachers to grow. Teacher Education Quarterly, Spring, 2004. Retrieved October 2010, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3960/is_200404/ai_n9349405

Academic writing in discourse scenarios

Academic conventions for generating knowledge

Taking into account that academic writing involves the ability to generate knowledge through the act of composing, it is important to state that this process requires the use of specific conventions for the purpose of knowledge transforming (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010). “[A] general academic register, a formal style, a proficiency in language use, the ability to integrate information from other sources, and the types of genres academic writing deals with” (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.10) are considered to be essential for operating into academic settings. According to Reid (2001), the way in which information is presented, argued and supported is emphasized over the content to be transmitted and shared in the community (cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010).

Throughout Myles’ (2002) article, academic conventions have probably been applied according to the formal requirements that characterize discourse communities. The use of quotations has been incorporated for citing the author’s exact words in order to support the writer’s claims. Not only does Myles (2002) make use of direct quotes to state the author’s original meaning, but also paraphrases to express others’ ideas in a newly legitimated mood avoiding plagiarism. In addition, ellipses, which indicate that part of the original text has been omitted within a quotation, have been included in Myles’ (2002) article. The use of insertions into the original quote has been worked out by this author when changing a lower-case letter from the original quotation to an upper-case letter in the incorporation by means of square brackets.

In view of the fact that introductory phrases are placed inside the first sentence in paragraph organization, since they contain the source and state the main idea (cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010), Myles (2002) has worked out structures such as the authors’ last name, the year of publication between brackets and the reporting verbs. Considering that “introductory phrases are a type of in-text citations” (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p. 21), Myles (2002) has developed paraphrased in-text citations which include dates listed in different forms. As an example, she has included either the author’s last name followed by the date between parentheses in the signal phrase, or the authors’ last name together with the year of publication between brackets at the end. However, when Myles (2002) has cited the author’s own words through the use of direct quotations, she has integrated quotes into her work by specifying both the author’s last name, the year of publication, and page number between brackets after closing them.

On account that “academic writing is a type of writing that involves composing for knowledge transforming” (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.10), the purpose of Myles’ (2002) article seems to be concerned with enhancing the audience to explore, reflect and clarify important notions regarding the process of academic writing in the field of education. The author makes reference to the nature of errors, the learners’ language skills and strategies in native language as well as social and cognitive factors which affect the development of writing in the second language. Besides, the complexity of teaching this skill is clearly expressed, since “the ability to write well is not a naturally acquire skill; it is usually learnt or culturally transmitted as a set of practices in formal instructional setting or other environments” (Myles, 2002, p.1).

After reading and analyzing Myles’ (2002) article, it has been possible to work not only on its content, but also on its structure. Identifying the article’s purpose and its audience allow us to explore and reflect about its intended meaning. What is more, the possibility of transforming the text through the act of composing provides us with the opportunity to communicate knowledge by means of academic as well as technical uses. As Swales (1990) portrays “academic writing and its genres articulates in which a discourse community operates” (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.10), allowing its members to shared highly specialized conventions for constructing and sharing knowledge. Consequently, presenting and supporting information through the use of specific genres and styles provides us with the necessary tools to succeed in academic scenarios.

References

Myles, J. (2002). Second language writing and research: The writing process and error analysis in student texts. TESEL-EJ, 6, (2). Queen’s University. Retrieved November 2010, from

 http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESl-EJ/ej22/a1.html

Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved November 2010, from

http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7392

Personal narratives: Second part

A critical incident report: A troublesome situation

Some years ago, when I was studying for being a teacher of English, I had to go through a very difficult situation. This happened one day, when I was preparing my practices in an impoverished school in the suburbs of my city where my partners and I went to observe groups of students, take notes and ask some questions to the teacher in charge of them. It was known for us that those children who attended that educational institution used to be very violent and aggressive with their fellows as well as their teachers. Besides, they stayed at school from very early in the morning up to the last hours in the afternoon, so they had to spend all day long there and be fed up by the assistants, since they lived far away so as to go and return home many times a day. Those young learners had English as a curricular subject from the first year of schooling. However, most of them disliked the idea of learning this foreign language. What is more, the teacher in charge of delivering this subject had told us that the groups behaved so badly that most of the times it was impossible for her to work with them.

The first two weeks before starting my practices, I went there to observe a 6^th year class formed by students between 10-11 years old. The purpose of my visit was to gather information about the learners’ previous knowledge, needs, interests and weaknesses, so as to plan the topics and activities for my specialty. At the very beginning of the class, the students engaged with the topic introduced by the teacher which was related to “People’s daily lives”, but in a few minutes the class became a disaster. One of the boys stood up and started to throw pencils and other objects to the rest of the students, who then became involved in this problematic situation. Things made worse when the headmistress came in the classroom as the teacher was shouting in a fury without being able to control children and calm them down. Fortunately, the superior, taking profit of her experience, sorted out this situation by showing herself determined as well as by letting the group understand that those attitudes were going to change after all. After witnessing that event, I went home thinking about what a great challenge that group would be for me.

During the following days, I was able to analyze my notes, prepare materials and plan the lessons.  I had a clear image that engaging the students and keeping them relaxed would be a success for the development of my classes. When the hopeful day came, I felt so anxious and enthusiastic about the idea of being in front of that group of learners, that I brought the best of me so as to create a strong rapport and a wonderful classroom atmosphere. Although their level of English was very rudimentary, they took part in every task presented with eagerness and sympathy. Whenever they seemed to become bored or exhausted, a game or an ice-breaker activity was introduced to make them feel relaxed and interested with the aim of the class. None of them misbehaved or even disturbed the positive mood which each of us had been able to achieve that day. As a result, that troublesome situation which I had to experience those previous days, allowed me to analyze and reflect about my teaching practices as well as being able to understand that those young children, who came to school with their problems and sufferings, wanted to be felt valuable and their actions taken into account.